Using the Incomplete and emerging research into video type and presentation to inform video production for teachers


Using the Incomplete and emerging research into video type and presentation to inform video production for teachers

It is widely agreed among researchers that video-based learning in conjunction with pedagogical methods have the potential to improve learning outcomes (Lubrick & Zhou & Zhang, 2019; Yousef, Chatti, Schroeder & Wosnitza, 2014). Among teachers, there is a wide range of video forms being produced, using a range of technologies and approaches. The newness of these strategies, video production forms and technologies being applied to education means that in this case educators are ahead of the research and innovating often without, and indeed in spite of the emerging data from the educational research community. To illustrate this fact: Lightboard technology can be dated to 2013 (Lubrick & Zhou & Zhang, 2019); whilst Flipped Learning as a methodology begun in 2009 (Bishop & Verleger, 2013); Green-Screen use in education is hard to pin down in the research, but has appeared as early as 2012 (Sheffield & Swan) but is not widely discussed or studied within the research. Most often to explore perspectives from research on video-based learning outcomes we need to tap into theory and limited and comparative study designs. The limited, comparative studies tend to compare video-based instruction with other forms of video, or traditional teaching methods and then generalise from these comparisons. The theories are useful, but often rest on other theories, that are themselves challengeable and still being debated within the educational community. As such, the coverage of things that we believe we know about video-based learning are suggestive only and may well be disproven or challenged by forthcoming research.  

Things that have shown positive connections to learning:
Theory
References
Gesture
·         Mayer’s Multimedia Learning Theory: Signalling principle
·         Social Learning Theory
·         Observational Learning Theory
·         Mayer, 2005
·         Mautone & Mayer, 2001
·         Bandura, 1986
·         Mayer & Fiorella, 2014
Pointing, arrows
·         Cognitive Load Theory
·         Mayer’s Multimedia Learning Theory: Signalling principle
·         Sweller (Sweller, Ayres & Kalyuga, 2011; Sweller & Schmidt, 2016; Sweller, Kirschner & Clark, 2016; Sweller, Kirschner & Clark, 2007; Sweller, 2016; Sweller, Van Merrieboer & Paas, 2019)
·         Atkinson, Derry, Renkl & Wortham, 2000
·         Mautone & Mayer, 2001
Drawing whilst talking supports learning

·         Fiorella & Mayer, 2016
·         Guo, Kim & Rubin, 2014
·         Lasser & Toloza, 2017
Synchronised video and audio and physical elements
·         Mayer’s Mulitmedia Learning Theory, Temporal contiguity
·         Ginnis, 2006
·         Mayer & Fiorella, 2014
·         Mayer & Moreno, 2003
·         Michas & Berry, 2000
Short Video lengths are superior

·         Carmichael, Reid & Karpicke, 2018
·         Lawlor & Donnelly, 2010
·         Doolittle, Bryant & Chittum, 2015
Facial Expression
·         Social Agency Theory
·         Mayer, 2017
Segmenting or chunking of videos if longer

·         Mayer & Pilegard, 2014
·         Guo, Kim & Rubin, 2014
·         Lasser & Toloza, 2017
Talking head + slides is superior to audio and slides only

·         Guo, Kim & Rubin, 2014
·         Lasser & Toloza, 2017
Instructor presence is good

·         Carmichael, Reid & Karpicke, 2018
·         Pi, Hong & Yang, 2017

Though only a beginning point for the things that we believe we can reasonably establish in regard to video-based instruction, I personally have found the above summation of my recent research instructive. It is important as teachers using video in our classes, be it in a flipped, blended or any other model of approach to this, that we keep these concepts in our mind. They are not confirmed or hard science as of yet, but they are strongly suggestive of the directions we should follow when producing video for our students. As we venture into areas that may not be fully understood or explored, we should wherever possible aim to ground ourselves in the work of these talented academics whose work should be used to point the direction forward for us teachers.

References:

Arenas, E. (2015). Affordances of learning technologies in higher education multicultural environments. Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 13(4), 217-227.
Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of educational research, 70(2), 181-214.
Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of social and clinical psychology, 4(3), 359-373.
Bergmann & Sams (2012) Flip Your Classroom: Talk to Every Student in Every Class Every Day. International Society for Technology in Education.
Bishop, J. L., & Verleger, M. A. (2013, June). The flipped classroom: A survey of the research. In ASEE national conference proceedings, Atlanta, GA (Vol. 30, No. 9, pp. 1-18).
Carmichael, M., Reid, A., & Karpicke, J. D. (2018). Assessing the impact of educational video on student engagement, critical thinking and learning: the current state of play. white paper, Sage Publishing.
Doolittle, P. E., Bryant, L. H., & Chittum, J. R. (2015). Effects of degree of segmentation and learner disposition on multimedia learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(6), 1333-1343.
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). Eight ways to promote generative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 717-741.
Ginns, P. (2006). Integrating information: A meta-analysis of the spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity effects. Learning and instruction, 16(6), 511-525.
Guo, P. J., Kim, J., & Rubin, R. (2014, March). How video production affects student engagement: An empirical study of MOOC videos. In Proceedings of the first ACM conference on Learning@ scale conference (pp. 41-50). ACM.
Laaser, W., & Toloza, E. A. (2017). The changing role of the educational video in higher distance education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(2).
Lawlor, B., & Donnelly, R. (2010). Using podcasts to support communication skills development: A case study for content format preferences among postgraduate research students. Computers & education, 54(4), 962-971.
Lubrick, M., Zhou, G., & Zhang, J. (2019). Is the Future Bright? The Potential of Lightboard Videos for Student Achievement and Engagement in Learning. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15, 8.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 3148.
Mayer, R. E. (2017). Using multimedia for e‐learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(5), 403-423.
Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2014). 12 Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in Multimedia Learning: Coherence, Signaling, Redundancy, Spatial Contiguity, and Temporal Contiguity Principles. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 279.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
Michas, I. C., & Berry, D. C. (2000). Learning a procedural task: effectiveness of multimedia presentations. Applied Cognitive Psychology: The Official Journal of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 14(6), 555-575.
Mautone, P. D., & Mayer, R. E. (2001). Signaling as a cognitive guide in multimedia learning. Journal of educational Psychology, 93(2), 377.
Mayer, R. E., & Pilegard, C. (2005). Principles for managing essential processing in multimedia learning: Segmenting, pretraining, and modality principles. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning, 169-182.
Pi, Z., Hong, J., & Yang, J. (2017). Does instructor's image size in video lectures affect learning outcomes?. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(4), 347-354.
Sheffield, C., & Swan, S. (2012). Digital reenactments: using green screen technology to recreate the past. Social Education, 76(2), 92-95.
Sweller, J. & Ayres, P. & Kalyuga, S. (2011) Cognitive load theory, New York, Springer-Verlag.
Sweller, J & Schmidt, H. (2016) Panel discussion. Presentation at PBL Congress Zurich. Retrieved from: https://www.pbl2016.ch/de/english/congress-review/, accessed on 25/2/2019
Sweller, J., Kirschner, P. A., & Clark, R. E. (2007). Why minimally guided teaching techniques do not work: A reply to commentaries. Educational psychologist, 42(2), 115-121.
Sweller, J. (2016) Problem-based learning. Presentation at PBL Congress Zurich. Retrieved from: https://www.pbl2016.ch/de/english/congress-review/, accessed on 25/2/2019
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later. Educational Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
Yousef, A. M. F., Chatti, M. A., Schroeder, U., & Wosnitza, M. (2014, July). What drives a successful MOOC? An empirical examination of criteria to assure design quality of MOOCs. In 2014 IEEE 14th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (pp. 44-48). IEEE.

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